Nutrition for Mother & Baby

There are, As In The Two TRIMESTERS, Windows of nutritional opportunity during the last three months of pregnancy. This period includes the time when you should be preparing your body for giving birth but also providing sustenance for crucial brain growth in your baby prior to the birth.

Your blood volume is still increasing, SO YOU need plenty of iron- rich foods as well as absorption of the iron. You are gaining weight faster than at any other time in the pregnancy lying down fat ready for producing milk.It is important to eat the right kind of fat that is polyunsaturated to obtain essential fatty acids. The baby’s brain is growing faster than ever, The number of brain cells is increasing at a rate of of brain cells is increasing at a rate of at least 100,000 a minute.Seventy per cent of the calories YOU!” baby receives are used for brain growth. When the baby is born, its brain weighs about 350 g (12 oz). Sixty per cent of it is made up of fat.and 20 per cent of that is composed of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPs). These a acids are reo transmission of signals between nerve cells. There are two kinds of essential fatty acids, both essential for good brain function: linoleic acid (omega-O) and linolenic acid (omega-3).The best food sources of omega-6 are seeds and their Oils. The best sources of omega -3 are lineseed, pumpkin seeds and oily fish.one of the active forms of omega -3 is DHA, which is a component of brain cell membranes and ensures – good neural connections.There is evidence that DHA may he to prevent pregnancy-induced hypertension and that it reduces the risk of premature birth. NUTRIENTS VTAMIN A This is a powerful anti-oxidant. B VITAMlNS vitamins B2 is needed in increased amounts as well as those listed (see For Mother, right). VITAMlNS E This is a powerfull anti-oxidant. OTHER VITAMINS. K is made naturally in the gut, but not in a baby’s, so it may be given orally at birth. CALCIUM Foetus takes up Calcium at a rate of about 350 mg a day. ZINC Boys take five times to much Zinc as girls’ deficiency is linked to undescended testes. OTHER MINERALS Iron intake must be kept high because it takes six weeks to build up supplies.

The Vital Link Emergency Response

ATTACHED TO THE WALL of the uterus, the placenta connects you to your baby via the umbilical cord and supplies all the baby’s needs while in the Womb.Beginning as a small cluster of cell, the placenta becomes deeply embedded in the wall as it grOws and develops ever more co inctions. At the birth of your baby. the placenta consists of a flat. round or oval disk 18–20 cm (7–8 in) in diameter, and 2.5 cm (1 in) thick.

It weight about 600g (20 oz)- roughly one-sixth of the weight of the baby.The maternal placenta has lowhich are called cotyledons. the foetal side has the umbilical cord growing out of the centre or it, with blood vessels radiating form it.The umbilical cord is about 50 cm (20 in) in length, 2 cm (4 in) in thickness and is Composed of a jelly-like substance. As it develops, the placenta takes over the key functions that sustain the pregnancy. • It produces vital hormones. One of these, human chorionic gonadotrophin (ICG), starts circulating in your blood from the moment that you conceive. .The placenta prevents you from rejecting the baby by by means of a membrane. Your blood does not flow directly into the baby but diffuses through this membrane. The baby’s blood diffuses back the other way. • The placenta provides oxygen and removes waste. The umbilical cord has one blood vessel that carries oxygen and nutrients to the baby and two that carry carbon dioxide and waste products away. Blood flows through the placenta at the rate of 36 litre (8 gal) a day at 16 weeks. The a day at full term.• It provides all the baby nutritional needs proteins fo growth; glucose for energy:essential fatty Taking what the o from your blood. the placenta uese some substances straight. Improve the efficiency of the placenta by Eating a balanced diet | Good nutrition is vital for a healthy placenta.* Resting as much as possible Relax the muscles, particularly the abdominals, thereby increasing blood flow to the placenta. Choose a comfortable position and practise deep breathing and visualization for a lost 30 minutes a day during the third trimester e that stress and tension ving your body as you on and that Oxygen is your lungs and blood aching the baby via the placenta as you inhale. Sleeping Most cell repair and cell growth takes place when you are asleep.

Earth’s Orbit Around The Sun – Universe

A satellite is AN object that goes around, or orbits, another object. The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. We have also launched many artificial satellites, usually simply called “satellites”. for purposes such as surveying the land.telecommunications, tracking to other and spying on possible enemies out the on to is also a satellite – of the Sun The Ea se on its own axis produces day and night to elongated or elliptical orbit around the Sun gives us the seasons. The Earth spins like a top around its axis, which is an imaginary line passing through the North and south Geographic poles.

It turns around once every 24 hours. From the surface, it seems as of the Sun is passing across the sky during the day, and then disappearing below the horizon at night. As the Earth spins, it also whirls through space at 30 Kilometres every second, on its year-long journey or orbit around the Sun. The axis of spin is not at right angles to the level or plane of the orbit. This means, for part of the year, that the upper half or Northern Hemisphere of the Earth is tilted nearer the sun, giving the warmer temperatures of summer. The tilt of the Earth’s axis, at 23.5° to its orbit around the Sun, produces seasonal changes on Earth. At the Equator the Sun is directly overhead at midday on the spring (vernal) and autumnal equinoxes in the calendar months of March and September. At the summer solstice (midsummer) in June, it is highest in the sky as seen from the Northern Hemisphere, bu, lowest as seen from the Southern Hemisphere, where it is midwinter. The Antarctic Circle is tilted away from the Sun, so the Sun does not rise in the sky. Meanwhile the Arctic Circle is facing the Sun and so the Sun never sets. Six months later the situation is reversed During winter, the Sun is above the horizon for less time compared to summer. Also it does not rise so high in the sky, so its rays pass at a slanting angle through the Earth,s atmosphere. The result is that less of the Sun’s warmth reaches the ground, so temperatures are lower. Meanwhile in the opposite hemisphere, the Sun is higher in the sky for longer each day. Its rays pass almost Vertically down through the atmosphere.This gives higher temperatures. The Moon goes around or orbits the Earth at an average distance of 384,400 kilometres. But the orbit is elliptical,so this distance varies from 356,000 to 407,000 kilometres. One orbit takes about one month. More accurately, it takes 27.3 days for the Moonto orbit the Earth, with respect to the hardly changing background of the stars. This is a sidereal month. But the oooo takes 29.5 days to orbit the Earth with respect to the Sun, because during this time the Earth has moved on in its own orbit around the Sun. This is a synodic month. The Moon does not make its own light. It shines with reflected sunlight. The portion of the sunlit part of the Moon that we can see from Earth gives the phases of the Moon, and the phases repeat every synodic month. Satelliente orbits vary according to their purpose.A survey o that takes photographs of the surface, like the image above has a low earth orbit of around 500 to 1,000 sometres. However this may be elliptical, so for part of the obit the satellite is less than 100 kilometres high, for a closeup view.A telecommunications satellite may orbit 35,800 kilometres high, directly above the Equator. At this distance, each orbit takes 24 hours. The Earth below also spins around once in this time. So from the surface, the satellite seems to “hang” in the same place in the sky. This is a geostationary orbit. It means satellite dishes here on Earth do not have to tilt or swivel to track the satellite across the sky.

Communications

MODERN COMMUNICATIONS DEVICES give almost instant access to almost any information, almost anywhere in the world. Most work using electricity and magnetism,and some use light too. Telephones and televisions rely on converting sounds or pictures into electrical signals, which are sent long distances through wires at high speed — the speed of light, 300,000 kilometres per second. Information can also be converted from electrical signals into pulses of electromagnetic waves – laser light – and sent along fibre-optic cables. Or it is changed into radio waves and sent to local networks. or up to satellites in space and thenback down to Earth again. The light or radio signals have to be converted into el signals before they can be turned back into sounds or pio again.

An optical fibre is a rod of glass or similar transparent material, which is thinner than a hair and can flex or bend. It is contained ina protective sheath that also separates it from other optical fibres around it. The fibre carries information as coded flashes of laser light. Because these hit the inside of the surface of the rod at a very shallow angle, they bounce off or reflect back into the rod, by total internal reflection. This means the laser pulse Zig-zags along the inside of the fibre, even is bent. The flashes carry information in digital form. As with electrical information, a flash or pulse is 1 in binary, and no flash or pulse (a gap) is 0. The digital information can represent numbers, letters, words, sounds and pictures. Thousands of optical fibres are bundled together in one casing as a fibre-optic cable. In the last 170 years, electrical information has revolutionized the way we communicate.Long – distance or telecommunication networks can pass messages around the would in seconds.These amazing achievements all started with the electric telegraph, which developed into the modern telex system. The telephone network has now developed to carry pictures, computer date, electronic mail and many other forms of information. A mobile phone sends and receives messages by radio waves.The radio waves travel to and from a transceiver (transmitter receiver) station which connects the calls into the standard telephone network Countries are divided up into different areas called cells, and each cell has its own transceiver station.in an area where a lot of people live, there are many small cells because the are likely to be many people using mobile phones. In sparsely populated areas, the cells are larger. A “mobile” is a low-power radio transmitter-receiver. It has a mouthpiece to change sound waves into electrical signals (like a microphone), and an earpiece to change electrical signals into sound Waves (like a loudspeaker). The transmitter-receiver only needs to send and pick up waves from the neatest cel tower, which is Usually just a few kilometres away. However hills or tall buildings may block the radio signals. Also, in areas where the Fel towers are farther apart the signals may be too weak to travel to and from the phone.

Gravity of earth value

WHEN YOU JUMP IN THE AIR,you quickly drop back to the ground.And however hard you throw a ball into the air,it always comes down again. The invisible force that pulls everything downwards on Earth is called gravity.But other objects have gravity,too.In fact, every object has gravity– the force called gravitationa attracts, or pulls, other objects. So a ball flying through the air pulls the Earth towards it, as well as the Earth pulling the ball. But because the Earth has so much more mass than the ball, and so a much greater inertia (resistance to being moved), it is the ball that moves. Objects like stars are so massive, they have huge gravitational attraction. The Sun’s gravity holds all the planets, including Earth, in orbit around it.

Earth’s gravity pulls objects down onto its surface. We can measure this force by the amount it stretches the spring in a spring balance. In everyday terms We call it “weight”, and We measure it in kilograms or pounds. But in scientific terms, weight is a force and so it should be measured in units called newtons. Bigger objects with more mass (matter or atoms) are pulled more strongly to the Earth. In other words they weigh more, The Earth and Moon attract each other,but the Earth is much more massive So the Earth stays almost still compared to the moon while the Moon goes around it. The world-famous Leaning Tower of Pisa, in Italy, was slowly being pulled over to one side by gravity. A tall thin object stands upright as long as its top is directly above its base. Then the force of gravity acts straight down through the object. The tower in Pisa was finished in about 350 – but unfortunately, it was built on soft ground. And on one side, the ground was slightly ofter than the other So the tower began to i that side. In recent years, the foundations have been strengthened, and hopefully the Leaning Tower wil not lean any further. Skydivers accelerate towards the ground until the force of gravity pulling them down is balanced by the force of air resistance pushing upwards against them. With these two forces in balance, the skydivers stop accelerating.Their final maximum speed of about 160 kilometres per hour is called their terminal velocity. The Cassini–Huygens spacecraft was launched in 1997 to the giant outer planet Saturn. But even the biggest rocket cannot launch a spacecraft straight to Saturn. So the craft uses the slingshot method (below). The Cassini–Huygens craft was launched not towards Saturn, but at Venus. The gravity of Venus speeds it up until it swings around this planet like a slingshot and heads back to Earth. Earth’s gravity gives it another boost, then it slingshots around the Sun, Venus again, and finally Jupiter, before arriving at Saturn. The Cassini–Huygens probe is due to reach Saturn, with its spectacular rings, in the year 2004. The planet’s gravity will pull the spacecraft faster and faster towards it. But the angle of the craft’s approch should mean that it goes into orbit around saturn.Then it releases is lander probe. This sends radio signals to the orbiter part of the craft, which relays them to Earth.

Development Mother & Baby

Top DevelopMENT OF A BABY TAKES 38 WEEKS from conception (40 weeks of pregnancy is calculated from the first day of your last menstrual period) By the third week after conception, you may realize that period is late and suspect that you are pregnent.

Even by week four it may be too early to notice bodily changes,although you may have some breast tenderness and feel unusually tired. By week five you to be feeling premenstrual and you will be more aware of changes your metabolic rate,breathing rate and heart rate will have all increased and the muscle and fibre of your uterus are thickening and lengthening. Hormone production is greatly. Progesterone,example, helps to maint in the pregnancy and lower blood Pressure, while oestrogen stimulates development of milk glands and Strengthensthe uterus. Human chorionic Sonadotrophin (HCG) a hormone that is unique to Pognancy – is produced by the placenta.EARLY DAYS There will be few outward signs of the great changes occurring within your body during the first 12 weeks.Hormonal changes may cause great emotional highs and low as well as nausea and sickness. MAKING PLANS By week six your pregnancy will have been confirmed. Contact your midwife or doctor and arrange for your first visit to an antenatal clinic betwees weeks eight and 12.Also mak an appointment to see your dentist to maintain healthy teeth and gums. You will be aware of the Speeding up of your metabolism. You may feel drained – as if someone has pulled the plug”. By about week eight you may experience mild abdominal pains as your uterus Starts to Stretch. If you suffer severe abdominal pain, see your doctor immediately. By week nine you should be thinking about antenatal tests. There are several screening and diagnostic tests to detect foetal abnormalities but Consider the implications of a positive result.By week 12 the “uterus is Starting to move out of the pelvis,becoming an abdominal Organ,and the heart is Pumping extra blood. THE BABY’S DEVELOPMENT WEEK 1. After fertilization, the sperm and ovum nuclei fuse to form a zygote. This starts to divide as it travels to the uterus WEEK 2 After six or seven days, the cell mass develops a hollow cavity and is now called a blastocyst. By the tenth day it becomes embedded in the endometrium. WEEK 3 The blastocyst is the size of a pinhead but is multiplying fast. The inner cells of the cavity develop into the embryo. WEEK 4 The baby is about 2 mm in lenght and weigh less than 1 gm.Its body tissues embryonic layers the hair. nails,mammary glands, teeth enamel inner ear and lenses for the eyes from one layer, the nervous system, retina,pituitary gland, muscle. cartilage, bones,blood and lymph cells from another, and lungs, trachea, liver pancreas and bladder from a third. WEEK 5 The heart has started to develop; it now has four chambers The roof palate of the mouth is forming. WEEK 6 the cluster of cells is becoming an embryo,roughly the size of a fingertip.The hrart is beating at 180 beats a minute, more than twice as fast as yours.Eyelids. ears, and the beginnings of hands and feet are forming. The shape of the head and the curve of the spine are discernible. Week 7 The embryo has quadrupled in size and the nervous system is developing well. The baby is starting to move its body arms and legs. These movemen’s “can be detected by a monitor, but you will not be able to feel them. The lungs,liver and kidneys are starting to develop. WEEK 8 About 2.5 cm (1 in) in length, the embryo has now evolved into a foetus. its brain is developing rapidly, and the umbilical cord has formed. Ears are beginning to develop and the mouth is able to open and close. WEEK 9. The baby is now 4 cm (1. in) in length and can wriggle slightly. The digestive and nervou sens are developing fast and the brain -is four time larger than it was four weeks ago. WEEK 10 The nervous system has matured enough for the baby to move about more.All the organs plus the sack of amniotic fluid have been formed and the baby is ow recognizable as a human being. WEEK 11 The liver takes over the manufacture of red blood cells and the kidneys are functioning.the baby is about 5 cm (2 in) long and growing rapidly.It has a complete formed face.The head is growing to accommodate the brain. WEEK 12 Your baby is fully formed. although, at just 6 cm long, there is a lot of growing still to do. Its nails and hair are starting to grow, its jaw has 32 little teeth buds, and it is starting to suck.Internal sex organs have formed.

Forces and motion

FORCES Push, pull , press and move things.Forces have size or strength – and also direction.A force always acts on an object in a particular direction.If the object is free to move, the force makes it move and speed up, or accelerate,in the direction of the force.When something cannot move,such as a nut in the jaws of a nutcracker the forces can change its shape or even break it altogether.

kick a soccer ball, and you force it to move. Once going, the ball tries to carry on in the same direction at the same speed. But two froces on it, to change both speed and driection. The are air resistance and gravivty. Kicking a ball shows three of the most basic ideas in all of science — the laws motion.The first law of motion says that an object continues to move in the same direction, at the same speed, unless forces act on it.Kick a ball, and the forces of gravity and air resistance (as the ball pushes its Way through molecules of air) make it slow and fall down, The second law of motion says that the greater the force on an object picks up speed.That is acceleration of an object is proportional to the force acting on it.So kick harder, and the ball goes faster. The third law of motion says that when an object hits another the second object produces an equal force but in the opposite direction. In other words, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. If two soccer balls hit each other rolling at equal speeds in exactly opposite directions they bounce apart and roll back the way they came. As two teams battle in a tug-of-war, they pull with their arms, but they also lie back as far as they can. This increases the force of their pull, by adding their weight to the power of their leg muscles pushing against the ground. Some buildings are fixed into the ground by steel girders called piles. driven in by a machine case a pile driver. The weight of the pile ‘s like a giant hammer, hitting to go and again with tremendous force,pushing it deeper into the earth Dropping the pile weight from a greatre height increases the force of e blow, which is why pile-drivers * all towers. As the pile goes in,the weight has farther to fall. A car-crusher produces such enormous forces that it presses a whole vehicle into a small cube. This saves space at refuse dumps. But a better answer is more recycling. Tracks in soft ground show where an animal walked.The pressure of the animal’s weight acting through its feet overcame the ability of the ground to resist it,and the animal sank in slightly. The same animal with smaller feet would make deeper tracks, because the same weight acts over a smaller area, producing greater pressure. Heavy vehicles on soft ground often have wide “caterpillar tracks.These spread the vehicle’s weight over a large area, compared to wheels with tyres, so the vehicles sinks is less.Working animals like oxen and buffalo have wide hooves, for the same reason.

Solids, liquids and gases

MATTER IS ANY PHYSICAL SUBSTANCE OR object that exists in the three dimensions of space. It can be as huge as a planet or a star, or as Small as one atom – or even as tiny as the sub-atoms particles inside an atom. Whatever its size, matter also exists in one of three main forms. These are solid, liquid and gas. They are called the three states of matter. A housebrick, lump of wood of sheet of steel are solid. The petrol for a car's engine of the oil for cooking food are liquid. A cylinder of oxygen in a hospital or an "empty” room contain gases. Each form of matter has its own features and properties. But the atoms and molecules in matter do not change for each different state. What changes is the way that the atoms or molecules can move about, or the way they are forced to stay still.

The same matter or substance can change state, from solid to liquid,or from liquid to gas.These processes are called meIting and boiling,and are shown on the next page.Another change of state happens when substances burn, or combust. In a vehicle engine, liquid petrol sprays into the cylinders inside the engine, along with air containing oxygen. The petrol catches fire an burns rapidly, combining with the Oxygen in amini-explosion. The result is not anotherliquid, like petrol, but a variety of gases. These leave the engineas exhaust fumes. Gases flow and expand, spreading out in all directions to fill their container. So the exhaust fumes from every vehicle spread out evenly through their container – the Earth's atmosphere.This is why pollution from vehicles is a worldwide problem. The glaze on a shiny vase is solid. Most solids are opaque. You cannot see through them. But clear glass, glazes and varnishes are see-through, or transparent. The glaze protects the beautiful colours and patterns of the paints beneath and allows them to show through. Solid water is called ice. In a solid, the molecules can move very little.They are held in a rigid framework or pattern by bonds between them. So a solid stays in the same shape, unless subject to powerful forces such as twisting or crushing. This is called water vapour. It floats in the air. In a gas, the molecules can move about very easily.This is why gases flow and take up the shape of the container they are in. But the molecules in a gas can also be squashed nearer together or moved farther apart. So a gas can be compressed into a smaller volume, or expand to fill its container.